The Rise of Nationalism in Europe ( Simple Notes)

Introduction:

You may know about world history that is full of battles, revolutions, struggle and demands. It is so vast and complex that you cannot recall the entire past at once. So, to make this lengthy and confusing past easy, History of some important events has been divided into different chapters. You must have learnt about some of the events of Indian history, France and Russia in previous classes. Similarly, this year you have the first chapter based on European history. Since many events and revolutions brought changes in the world’s political and social order, it becomes important for you to know why change was made. Basically, we will be reading about the building of a nation-state in this chapter.

The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics :

• In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints.
• In these prints, he visualized his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and Social Republics’.
• The first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a long train.
  • They are offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
  • A Female figure is carrying the torch of Enlightenment in one hand. And the charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
  • On the foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.
  • In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume.
  • The procession was led by the US and Switzerland.
  • Followed by France, Germany, Austria, the kingdom of the two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia respectively.
  • From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene (Symbol of fraternity).
• This chapter deals with many of the issues visualized by Fredric Sorrieu in his print. Like the sense of common identity, building of nation-state, nationalism which emerged in the nineteenth century in Europe.

Nationalism:

Nationalism is an idea and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining sovereignty over its homeland. Each nation should govern itself without any interference from outside.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation:

In the previous year, you must have read about the French Revolution that gave inspiring ideas to the entire world. So this year, you will know the impact of the French Revolution in the different parts of Europe and the feeling of one nation state among people belonging to the European continent.

Major changes in France :

• In 1789, the people of France began protesting against the autocratic rule of the Monarch.
• They demanded for the transfer of power from the king to the common people.
• The members of the third Estate wanted parliamentary democracy.
• French Revolutionaries attempted to create a sense of collective identity among the French people.
  • Steps Taken by Revolutionaries:
    • The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
    • A new French flag, the tricolor, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
    • The Estates General was renamed as ‘The National Assembly’ and elected by the body of active citizens.
    • New hymns (national songs) were composed.
    • They took oaths and recalled martyrs. They did all these things in the name of the nation
    • Revolutionaries formulated uniform laws for all citizens under a centralized administrative system.
    • Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
    • French became the common (national) language of the nation.
• French armies took the idea of Nationalism abroad.

Napoleonic Era: (1799-1815)

• Re-establishment of Monarchy by Napoleon Bonaparte destroyed democracy in France.
• However, He incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. First, he brought changes in France and then regions under French control.
  • Napoleon introduced the civil code of 1804 also known as Napoleonic Code.
    • He put an end to all the privileges based on birth.
    • Established equality before the law.
    • Secured the right to property.
    • Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
    • He also removed Guild restrictions from towns.
    • and also improved the transportation and communication systems.
    • He brought out uniform laws, introduced standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency.
  • Drawbacks of Napoleon Rule:
    • Increased taxation.
    • Censorship (suppression of ideas, speech, images that are offensive).
    • and also forced conscription into the French Armies.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe:

In the mid of eighteenth-century (1750-1815)

• There were no ‘nation states’.
• The rulers of Germany, Italy and Switzerland had autonomous territories. And they were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons.
• People had diversity in language, tradition, history. For example: Habsburg Empire.
• Only common thing in these diverse groups was loyalty to the emperor.

They had nothing to share with each other in common except the allegiance to the King. So How did nationalism and the idea of the nation state emerge.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class:

We will discuss about Social, Political and economic life of three groups in Europe. These are Aristocracy, Peasantry and Middle Class.

Aristocracy:

• Aristocracy was powerful, the dominant and the land owing class.
• It spoke in French for the purposes of diplomacy and in high society.
• Their families were often connected by the ties of marriage.
• United by the common ways of life.
• However, the group of Aristocrats was very small.

Peasantry:

• Peasants’ population was in majority.
• They used to look after the land of aristocrats.

Middle Class:

• With the growth of industrial production and trade, new towns and commercial classes emerged.
• The middle class comprised of Industrialists, businessmen, professionals (teacher, doctor).
• Two Ideas of Educated Middle Class:-
  • The Idea of National unity.
  • And Idea of Liberal Nationalism evolved in the minds of middle class.

Liberal Nationalism:

The term Liberalism derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.

The Idea of liberal nationalism for new middle class was:-

• In Political sphere:
  • Freedom of Individual.
  • Equality before law.
  • Government with people’s consent.
  • End of Autocracy and clerical privileges.
  • Constitution and representative government through Parliament.
• In Economic sphere:
  • Freedom of markets.
  • Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

Since they wanted to get solution for these two problems:-

1. Firstly, Only propertied men were allowed to vote and women had no such right.
2. Secondly, State to state trade restrictions. (For example:- currency, weights and measures, custom barriers)

Zollverein:

• In 1834, a custom union formed.
• Prussia took the initiative.
• Later, Most of the German States joined it.

It gave positive outcome:-

• The union abolished tariff barriers.
• Also removed number of currencies from over thirty to two.
• Improved or promote Railway networks that stimulated mobility.

A New Conservatism after 1815:

• Napoleonic Era ended when Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria collectively fought war against Napoleon and defeat him in the Battle of Waterloo (Battle in Belgium).
• Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
• Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society should be preserved.
  • For example: The monarchy
  • The Church
  • Social hierarchies
  • Property and the family.
• However, one thing they (conservatives) realized that Napoleon’s measures were somehow better and need to make some changes in old system in order to strengthen traditional institutions.
• After a great victory in the battle of Waterloo, Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria signed the treaty of Vienna (Capital of Austria) in 1815.

Treaty of Vienna:

An Austrian Chancellor, Duke Metternich hosted the congress which was held at Vienna. He was the architect of The Treaty Of Vienna.

• Conservatives Restored Bourbon dynasty in France. Thus, Louis Phillip became Monarch.
• States were set up on the Boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
• Prussia got some important territories on its western frontiers.
• Austria got control over North Italy.
• Russia got Poland.
• Confederation of 39 states which had been set up by Napoleon, was left untouched.

Problem in conservative regimes:-

• These conservative regimes were autocratic.
• They did not tolerate criticism and dissent.
• They sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
• Most of them imposed censorship laws.

Freedom of Press became one of the main reasons for liberal-nationalists to criticize the new conservative order. As a result, Revolutionaries came forward.

The Revolutionaries:

• The fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground.
• They began to form secret societies, train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
• They would become revolutionaries with the Aim
  • to spread the idea of Nationalism and oppose Monarchy.
  • They wanted freedom and end of Autocratic rule.
  • Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle for freedom.

One of the most important Revolutionaries:-

• Giuseppe Mazzini:
  • He was an Italian Revolutionary.
  • Born in Genoa in 1807.
  • Since he attempted a revolution in Liguria, he was sent into exile in 1831.
  • Also, he was a member of secret society Carbonari
    • He formed two secret societies.
      • Young Italy in Marseilles.
      • Young Europe in Berne.
  • Mazzini believed that the God intended nations to be a natural units of mankind. In simple words, he believed in the unification of Italy.
  • Influenced by his model, Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland also formed secret societies.
  • He made conservatives feel fear by his vision of democratic republics.
  • Metternich describes him as ‘ The most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• The ideas (Liberalism and Nationalism) got spread among different parts of Europe.
• Educated middle class (Liberal-Nationalist) led these two ideas.
• Regions were Italian, German States, Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland.

27 July 1830 : French Revolution

• The First upheaval took place in France.
• Liberal Revolutionaries overthrew Conservatives (Bourbon kings) from the position.
• And appointed Louis Philippe as the head under constitutional monarchy.
• The revolution in France led to other revolutions such as Belgium and Greek Revolution.

25 August 1830 : Belgian Revolution

• Belgian Revolution began on 25th August 1830.
• The difference in religion led to separation of Belgium (Catholics) from United Kingdom of Netherlands (Protestants).
• Finally, Belgium got Independence on 4 October 1830.

1821-1832; Greek War Of Independence : Greek Revolution

• There was Ottoman Empire in Greece.
• However, Greeks wanted the revival of the Byzantine Empire
• Also, Constantinople as its capital.
• At last, Treaty of Constantinople recognized Greece as a sovereign nation in 1832.
• They got help from western countries (the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and Russia).
• Poets and Artists referred Greece as ‘The Cradle of European Civilization‘.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Nationalism developed through Culture also. Since, It created the idea of the nation. But the question is, how? Here, you need to know the term Romanticism to understand this better.

Romanticism: It is a cultural Movement to develop a particular form of Nationalist sentiment.

• The Romantic Artists and poets criticized the glorification of reason and science.
• Instead, They focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
• They intended to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common past as the basis of a nation.

Romanticists :

Germany: Culture became the reason for promoting nationalism.

• Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803): He was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic.
  • He was also known as the father of ‘Cultural Nationalism‘.
  • He suggested two ideas; Das Volk and Volkgeist.
    • Das Volk: It is a German word that means common people of the country.
    • Volkgeist: It is also a German word that mean spirit of Nationalism.
  • By these phrases, he meant that the common people are the real source of true German Culture and true spirit of the nation was popularized through folk songs, folk poetries and folk dances respectively.

Poland: Language became weapon of National Resistance.

• At the end of 18th century, Great powers- Russia, Prussia, Austria separated Poland.
  • Russia got the power to rule the territory of Poland.
  • Consequently, it brought some changes in Poland.
    • Polish language was removed.
    • Moreover, they implemented Russian language in schools, offices etc.
    • Such changes resulted in Russian dominance over Poland.
• Karol Kurpinski: He was a leading Polish musician and composer during the nineteenth century.
  • He celebrated the national struggle through the operas and music, turning folk dances like polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
• To end the Russian dominance, many attempts were made by polish people.
  • First, An Armed Rebellion took place (against Russian Rule) which did not get success.
  • However, they did not give up. Many members of clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon.
    • Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instructions.
• As a result, Russian authorities responded in a cruel manner. Priest and bishops were put in jail or Siberia for their refusal to preach in Russian.
• Thereby, Polish became the symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt:

• The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.
• There were several reasons or causes for economic crisis in Europe:-
  • An enormous increase in population all over Europe in the first half of 19th century.
  • In most countries there were more seekers of job than employment.
  • Migration of large number of people from village to cities led to the spread of urban slums.
  • Moreover, Stiff competition from imports of machine made goods made small produces (in towns) suffer great losses. [Especially in textile production.]
  • Furthermore, the burden of feudal dues and obligations faced by peasants in the areas of aristocratic dominance.
  • Besides, widespread pauperism in town and country due to rise of food prices or year of bad harvest aggravated the situation.
• Meanwhile, there were riots going on in some places. These were:-
  1. Uprising of Silesian weavers in 1845: In Silesia, weavers revolted against contractors since they drastically reduced their (weavers) payments.
     • 4th June 1845:– Weavers demanded higher wages and began attacking contractor’s house.
     • The contractor fled with his family to a neighboring village however, did not get shelter.
     • After 24 hours, he returned back with army and eleven weavers were shot dead. 
  2. Uprising of peasants (Paris) in 1848: In Paris, food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the people out on the roads.
     • As a consequence, Louis Phillippe had to flee.
     • In his absence, a National Assembly proclaimed a republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work.
     • It also set up National workshops for providing employment.

1848: The Revolutions of the Liberals

• Apart from the poor, unemployed & starving peasants and workers, revolution also led by the educated middle class.
  • In France, February revolution ended monarchy and led to the creation of the French Second Republic.
• After the event of February 1848 in France, Liberals in other parts of Europe (Germany, Italy, Poland, Austro Hungarian Empire) revolted for the same reason.
  • Revolution was led by educated Middle class.
  • They wanted to establish nation state.
  • Moreover, they demanded for Parliamentary Principles –
    • a constitution
    • Freedom of Press
    • Freedom of Association (no restrictions to form parties)
• In German regions, political associations were largely formed by middle class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans.
  • They came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
  • On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives revolted in the Frankfurt parliament (Convened in Church of St Paul).
    • They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
    • So, they offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, king of Prussia.
    • However, king rejected the offer and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
  • Reasons for the failure of Frankfurt Parliament:-
    • The opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger.
    • The parliament which was dominated by the middle classes, resisted the demands of workers and artisans. Consequently, lost their support.

Women’s Position:

• Women participated actively over the years.
• They formed their own political associations, founded newspapers.
• Furthermore, they took part in political meetings and demonstrations.

Note: Despite this, they did not get voting rights in the election of the Assembly. They could only stand in the visitors’ gallery as observers.

Did the Conservatives re-establish their power?

• Monarchs realized the need of granting concessions in order to end the cycle of revolutions.
• Hence, after the years of 1848, The autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes.
  • They abolished serfdom and bonded Labour (in Habsburg dominions and in Russia).
  • Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867. Now they were able to make their self governed country.

Note: In Western Europe, the above mentioned changes took place before 1815.

The Making of Germany & Italy and The Strange case of Britain:

• After 1848, Conservatives themselves began mobilizing nationalist sentiments for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe.

Germany:

• There was no homogenous German identity until the 19th century.
• The German states were bound together in a loose political entity known as the Holy Roman Empire.
• There were Austrian rulers (dominant one) and Prussian rulers.

The Process of Unification:

• Prussia became the leader of the German Unification Movement.
• King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the new Chief Minister of Prussia in 1862.
  • Otto Von Bismarck was the architect of the unification process.
  • He carried out with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy.
  • He followed the policy of Blood and Iron. Thus, fought three wars for seven years against Austria, Denmark and France.
  • This resulted in Prussian victory. Hence, it unified Germany.
• On 18th January 1871, Kaiser William I (Prussian King) was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
  • Finally, Germany emerged as an independent nation state.
  • A new nation state placed a strong emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany.
  • Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

Italy:

• Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire.
• During mid 19th Century, Italy was divided in Seven States.
• The only state ruled by Italian king was Sardinia-Piedmont.
• Austrian Habsburg had control over north, Pope ruled center and Bourbon Kings of Spain controlled the south part of Italy.
• Besides Italian language, there were many different regional languages as well.

Unification of Italy:

• In 1830, Giuseppe Mazzini who formed secret society with the aim of making Italy a nation state, did not get much success in doing so.
• Now, Victor Emmanuel II (Italian ruler of Sardinia Piedmont) became a central figure of the movement for Italian unification.
  • He (King) appointed Count Camillo de Cavour for leading movement further.
  • Count Camillo de Cavour was Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont state. He led the movement to unify the regions of Italy.
  • Chief Minister Cavour accomplished the goal by being adaptable and embracing diplomatic tactics.
  • In addition, Cavour took the help of Giuseppe Garibaldi.
    • In 1860, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
    • They attained success in winning the support of peasants. Thus, Spanish rulers were overthrown.
  • Finally, On 17th March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II became first king of unified Italy.

The Strange Case Of Britain:

• Unlike Germany and Italy, the formation of the nation state in Britain was the result of a long drawn-out process.
• There was no British nation prior to 18th century.
• People who inhabited British Isles belonged to different ethnic groups- such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
• They had their own cultural and political traditions.
• However, as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over other nations of Islands.
• Some reasons for the formation of Britain as a nation state were:-
  • First, the parliament through a bloodless revolution seized power from the monarchy in 1688.
  • The Act of Union.
  • Conflicts between two different religions; Catholics and Protestants.

The Act Of Union (1707):

• The Act of Union between England and Scotland held in 1707, Also known as Treaty Of Union. It was the Agreement between English and Scottish Parliament for the creation of ‘ The Kingdom Of Great Britain’.
• Gradually, this act resulted in domination of England over Scotland.

Forced incorporation of Ireland:

• In Ireland, there were conflicts between Catholics and Protestants.
• England took advantage by assuring help to Protestants of Ireland against Catholics. Later on, it got control over Ireland too.
• In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom.
• Therefore, Britain actively promoted British Flag (Union Jack), National Anthem (God Save Our Noble King) and the English language.

Visualizing the Nation:

• In 18th and 19th Centuries, Artist began to personify a nation in an allegory.
• Female figure was symbolized to represent a nation state. It was mainly done to give an abstract idea of nation a concrete form.
  • For Example: The French Artists (during French Revolution) used the female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice, and the Republic.
  • They represented these ideas through specific objects or symbols. These were:-
    • Attributes of Liberty: Red Cap, or the broken chain.
    • Justice: Blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.
  • Similarly, other artists also invented such allegories.
• Allegory of France: Marianne.
  • Characteristics/Attributes : The Red Cap, The Tricolor, The Cockade.
• Allegory of Germany: Germania.
  • Attributes: A crown of oak leaves (Symbol of heroism), Sword, Olive branch around the sword and Tricolor Flag (Black, Red and Gold), rays of rising sun, broken Chains and Breastplate with Eagle.

Nationalism and Imperialism: (1871-1900)

• After 1871, there was a significant change in the concept of nationalism in Europe.
  • The excessive nature of Nationalism in Europe turned into imperialism.
  • Subsequently, Competition among nations began to take place.
    • Nationalism: It is an ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation.
    • Imperialism: The practice of extending power over foreign countries with the use of military forces or other means.
  • Nationalist groups became intolerant of each other and ever ready to go to war.
• The major European powers began taking advantage of nationalism in Europe, to further their own imperialistic aims.
  • These major powers were:- Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary.
• Consequently, Balkans became the center of tension. There were mainly two reasons:-
  1. Internal Conflicts.
  2. External Conflicts.
• Before we read these two reasons in elaboration, let’s take a look over basic information about Balkans.

Balkans:

• Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variations.
• A large part was under the control of Ottoman Empire.
• This region was comprised of modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
• The inhabitants of this region were known as the Slavs.

Internal reasons for conflicts or tensions in Balkans:

• The spread of ideas of romantic nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire contributed to the feelings of resistance.
• One by one the European subjects broke apart and declared independence, Since the Empire had failed to modernize and implement the internal reforms.
• Moreover, they emphasized their nationality and looked back to history to claim their long-lost independence.
  • Consequently, these causes made Balkan an area of intense conflict.
    • The Balkan states became jealous of each other.
    • Each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.
  • Hence, it led to external conflicts.

External reasons for conflicts or tensions in Balkans:

• The major cause was internal conflict itself that made European powers take advantage of the situation.
  • For Example: Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary got attracted towards Balkans.
    • These powers colonized many countries.
    • Also, fought against each other in order to get control over Balkan regions.
    • Furthermore, this led to the beginning of First World War.

Development of Anti-Imperialist Movements:

• Anti-imperialist movements that developed in colonies were nationalist.
• Sense of collective national unity inspired these movements.
• People began opposing imperialism and developed their own specific variety of nationalism.
• The idea of ‘nation state’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.